The Language[]
Halton has, for centuries, been the administrative and literary language of several people of Arishian origin. Maybe due to this "cosmopolitan" nature, Halton has a somewhat simplified morphology, especially for nouns: there are no grammatical cases regarding noun declension. In verbs, the traditional Arishian system of subject-object marking, which splits verbs into transitive and intransitive, is replaced by a simpler, unified system, marking subject uniformly and direct objects only when needed. Compare some sentences with Handun, for example:
| Halton | Handun | English |
|---|---|---|
| shisunkbax.aksh a lupsa me puysa | k.ishkûdamtuha.l as-lûfûç as-fûyûsat | "I bought the/this house to the/my son" |
| la.shisunkbax.aksh me.lan | k.ishkûdamtuha.l lâyat | "I bought it to him" |
| kuyisbu.l | ´uyisbû.f | "she is singing" |
| kuyisbu.l a wuyisku shislus | fa.´uyisbû.l manû mawîna | "she is singing a beautiful song" |
Halton is the origin of many personal names used all around Drion like e.g.: (male) Nayixa, Wawaxis, Ki(kshu)rpas, Latur, Kuyan(y)i, Muni, Kuskankah, Kusnuppam, Yapkahnis, Mubar, Yadus(u); (female) Nayxin, Wawaxsin, Munin, Tu(h)ksin, Mubarin, Tapkimin and many others.
Morphology[]
Nouns[]
Definiteness[]
Definiteness is marked with the suffix -a with a reduced form of the stem. Examples:
- lupus "house"
- lups-a "the house"
- lups.ikh "houses"
- lups.ikh-a "the houses"
Number[]
Plural form of nouns have a suffix -(i)kh. Many nouns have a simplified stem in the plural. E.g.:
- lupus "house" - lups.ikh "houses"
- siw "animal" - siw.ikh "animals"
- suyas "aunt" - suys.ikh "aunts"
- mayadu "bank" - maydu.kh "banks"
- labah "hospital" - labh.ikh "hospitals"
- miw "knight" - miw.ikh "knights"
- waparal "arm" - waprl.ikh "arms"
- wuwik "star" - wiwk.ikh "stars"
Case[]
There is no case indication in nouns. The following prepositions are used:
- Accusative: a
- Dative: me
- Genitive: in
- Locative: ser
- Instrumental: les
- Ablative: shew
Ex.:
- Nominative: lupus "a house"
- Accusative: a lupus "a house"
- Dative: me lupus "to a house"
- Genitive: in lupus "of a house"
- Locative: ser lupus "in a house"
- Instrumental: les lupus "with a house"
- Ablative: shew lupus "from a house"
- Nominative: lupus-a "the house"
- Accusative: a lups-a "the house"
- Dative: me lups-a "to the house"
- Genitive: in lups-a "of the house"
- Locative: ser lups-a "in the house"
- Instrumental: les lups-a "with the house"
- Ablative: shew lups-a "from the house"
Gender[]
Feminine is formed with the suffix -in. It is used to distinguish gender in names of living beings (animals, professions &c.). E.g.:
- yashnan "teacher" (man) - yashnan.in "teacher" (woman) -
- apkap "(an animal like an) ox" - apkap.in "(an animal like a) cow"
Plural is made from the original (masculine) noun:
- yashnan.ikh "teachers" (men) - yashnan.ikh.in "teachers" (women) -
- apkap.ikh "(animals like) oxen" - apkap.ikh.in "(animals like) cows"
Examples[]
- naspar "a hand"
- naspr.ikh "hants"
- naspr-a "the hand"
- naspr.ikh-a "the hants"
- ser naspr-a "in the hand"
- ser naspr.ikh-a "in the hants"
- les naspr-a "with the hand"
- les naspr.ikh-a "with the hants"
- wanal "a chief"
- wanl.ikh "chiefs"
- wanl-a "the chief"
- wanl.ikh-a "the chiefs"
- in wanl-a "of the chief"
- in wanl.ikh-a "of the chief"
- me wanl-a "to the chief"
- ser lupus-a "in the house"
Adjectives[]
Adjectives do not agree with nouns. E.g.:
- wanal masnip "a brave chief"
- wanl.ikh masnip "brave chiefs"
- wanl-a masnip "the brave chief"
- wanl.ikh-a masnip "the brave chiefs"
- in wanl-a masnip "of the brave chief"
- in wanl.ikh-a masnip "of the brave chief"
- me wanl-a masnip "to the brave chief"
When used as nouns, adjectives have full nominal declension:
- masnip "(a) brave one"
- masnp.ikh "brave ones"
- masnp-a "the brave one"
- masnp.ikh-a "the brave ones"
- in masnp-a "the brave one"
- in masnp.ikh-a "the brave ones"
- me masnp-a "to the brave one"
Comparison[]
Comparative of superiority is made with the suffix -se:
- masnip "brave" - masnip-se "braver"
- wudim "good" - wudim-se "better"
Relative Superlative is made with the suffix -max:
- masnip "brave" - masnip-max "the bravest"
- wudim "good" - wudim-max "the best"
Absolute Superlative is made with the prefix neb-:
- masnip "brave" - nem-masnip "very brave"
- wudim "good" - neb-udim "very good"
Pronouns[]
Personal[]
- 1st person singular: kuk
- 2nd person singular: yas
- 3rd person sing. m.: lan
- 3rd person sing. f.: nay
- 1st person plural: mak
- 2nd person plural: tam
- 3rd person plural: lak
Possessive[]
Possessive pronouns consist of a suffix, that are added to the definite form of the noun.
- 1st person singular: -ksh
- 2nd person singular: -d
- 3rd person singular.: -l
- 1st person plural: -m
- 2nd person plural: -b
- 3rd person plural: -t
Examples:
- lups-a-ksh "my house"
- lups-a-d "your house"
- lups.ikh-a-t "their houses"
Sometimes the personal pronouns is prefixed to the noun:
- kuk-lups-a-ksh "my house"
- yas-lups-a-d "your house"
Numbers[]
Cardinal[]
- 0: lan
- 1: kiyn
- 2: law
- 3: yamm
- 4: nusir
- 5: nuksh
- 6: purip
- 7: pall
- 8: muxup
- 9: luyam
- 10: yashkunk
- 11: kunkan
- 12: kunlaw
- 13: kunamam
- 14: kunnusir
- 15: kunnuhgis
- 16: kunpurip
- 17: kunballa
- 18: kunmuxup
- 19: kunluyam
- 20: yatsi
- 30: yammunk
- 40: nusrunk
- 50: nukshunk
- 60: purpunk
- 70: pallunk
- 80: muxpunk
- 90: luymunk
- 100: kipsih
- 200: law-kipsih
- 1000: yatsir
- 1234: yatsir law-kipsih yammunk nusir
Ordinal[]
Ordinal numbers are built with the ending -(y)is; some numbers have an irregular form:
- 1st: kshanis
- 2nd: lawayis
- 3rd: yayamis
- 4th: nusiris
- 5th: nukshis
&c.
Verbs[]
Concepts[]
There are no auxiliary verbs or periphrastic constructions, all verbal expressions are made up with a single word.
Infixes are used to create derivational roots. Aspect is indicated by means of infixes, prefixes or root alteration (mutation). Time is indicated by means of suffixes.
For persons, subject is indicated by suffixes, while direct objects are indicated by prefixes.
Derivation[]
A verb root may have the following derivational stems:
- -in-: Transitiveness. Changes an intransitive verb to a transitive one. Ex.: lupis "lie down", lupinis "lay (something) down"
- -ash-: Passiveness. Changes an active to a passive verb. Ex.: pakhuyruk "see", pakashhuyruk "be seen"
- -al-: Repetition. Indicates that the action is repeated several times. Ex.: pawi "shout", pawali "shout (repeatedly)"
- -at-: Causative. Changes a normal verb to a causative verb. Ex.: pakhuyruk "see", pakathuyruk "show"
- -ak- (after the first consonant): Potentiality. Indicates ability ("can"). Ex.: pakhuyruk "see", pakakhuyruk "be able to see", pakakathuyruk "be able to show"
- -ur- (before the last vowel): Obligation. Like English "must", "should". Ex.: lupis "lie down", lupuris "must lie down", pakathuyruruk "must show"
- -ay-: Volitive. Translated by "want", "wish". Ex.: pakhuyruk "see", pakhuyayruk "want to see",
- Intensive: indicated by means of a repetition of a consonant or a whole syllable of the root. Ex.: pawi "shout", pawawi "shout (many times or with great strength)"
- -an: Limitative. Indicates that the action is executed in a limited or tentative way. Root is generally shortened. Ex.: pakhuyruk "see", pahrawan "try to see", "take a look"
Aspect[]
- a-...-a: Aorist. Internal vowels are generally lost. Ex.: lupis "lie down", aor. alpsa; lupinis "lay (something) down", aor. alpinsa
- ...-un-...-a: Perfective. Ex.: lupis "lie down", perf. lupunisa
Time[]
Present time is not marked. Past and future are indicated as follows:
- -ax: Near (pragmatical) Past.
- -aw: Remote (narrative) Past.
- -um: Near Future.
- -as: Remote Future.
Person[]
Subject is indicated by means of suffixes.
- 1st person singular: -aksh
- 2nd person singular: -ad
- 3rd person singular: -al
- 1st person plural: -im
- 2nd person plural: -ib
- 3rd person plural: -it
Direct Object is indicated by prefixes:
- 1st person singular: k(a)-
- 2nd person singular: y(a)-
- 3rd person sing. m.: l(a)-
- 3rd person sing. f.: p(a)-
- 1st person plural: m(i)-
- 2nd person plural: b(i)-
- 3rd person plural: t(i)-
Examples[]
pakhuyruk "see"
Present Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhuyrukaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhuyrukad
- 3rd person singular.: pakhuyrukal
- 1st person plural: pakhuyrukim
- 2nd person plural: pakhuyrukib
- 3rd person plural: pakhuyrukit
Aorist Past Tense[]
- 1st person singular: afhuyrukaxaksh
- 2nd person singular: afhuyrukaxad
- 3rd person singular: afhuyrukaxal
- 1st person plural: afhuyrukaxim
- 2nd person plural: afhuyrukaxib
- 3rd person plural: afhuyrukaxit
Perfect Past Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhunrukaxaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhunrukaxad
- 3rd person singular: pakhunrukaxal
- 1st person plural: pakhunrukaxim
- 2nd person plural: pakhunrukaxib
- 3rd person plural: pakhunrukaxit
Future Tense[]
- 1st person singular: pakhuyrukumaksh
- 2nd person singular: pakhuyrukumad
- 3rd person singular: pakhuyrukumal
- 1st person plural: pakhuyrukumim
- 2nd person plural: pakhuyrukumib
- 3rd person plural: pakhuyrukumit
Sample[]
- Sinlumtu.k-a mad mashunupa-it napgimru, shew gurkustun yun shew husisns.ikh. Lak gawarunshpa-it les diwar yun les wustas, yun bunuduran-it me kuhgay.k-a ser kifsushkan in shashkin.
- ("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towarts one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")